B-24 Liberator Bomber in World War II

B-24 Liberator Bomber in World War II The Consolidated B-24 Liberator was an American heavy bomber that entered service in 1941. A highly modern aircraft for its day, it first saw combat operations with the Royal Air Force. With the American entry into World War II, production of the B-24 increased. By the end of the conflict, over 18,500 B-24s had been constructed making it the most-produced heavy bomber in history. Employed in all theaters by the US Army Air Forces and US Navy, the Liberator routinely served alongside the more rugged Boeing B-17 Flying Fortress. In addition to service as heavy bomber, the B-24 played a critical role as a maritime patrol aircraft and aided in closing the air gap during the Battle of the Atlantic. The type was later evolved into the PB4Y Privateer maritime patrol aircraft. Liberators also served as long-range transports under the designation C-87 Liberator Express. Origins In 1938, the United State Army Air Corps approached Consolidated Aircraft about producing the new Boeing B-17 bomber under license as part of the Project A program to expand American industrial capacity. Visiting the Boeing plant in Seattle, Consolidated president Reuben Fleet assessed the B-17 and decided that a more modern aircraft could be designed using existing technology. Subsequent discussions led to the issuing of USAAC Specification C-212. Intended from the outset to be fulfilled by Consolidateds new effort, the specification called for a bomber with a higher speed and ceiling, as well as a greater range than the B-17. Responding in January 1939, the company incorporated several innovations from other projects into the final design which it designated the Model 32. Design Development Assigning the project to chief designer Isaac M. Laddon, Consolidated created a high-wing monoplane that featured a deep fuselage with large bomb-bays and retracting bomb-bay doors. Powered by four Pratt Whitney R1830 twin Wasp engines turning three-bladed variable-pitch propellers, the new aircraft featured long wings to improve performance at high altitude and increase payload. The high aspect ratio Davis wing employed in the design also allowed it to have a relatively high speed and extended range. This latter trait was gained due to wings thickness which provided additional space for fuel tanks. In addition, the wings possessed other technological improvements such as laminated leading edges. Impressed with the design, the USAAC awarded Consolidated a contract to build a prototype on March 30, 1939. Dubbed the XB-24, the prototype first flew on December 29, 1939. Pleased with the prototypes performance, the USAAC moved the B-24 into production the following year. A distinctive aircraft, the B-24 featured a twin tail and rudder assembly as well as flat, slab-sided fuselage. This latter characteristic earned it the name Flying Boxcar with many of its crews. The B-24 was also the first American heavy bomber to utilize tricycle landing gear. Like the B-17, the B-24 possessed a wide array of defensive guns mounted in top, nose, tail, and belly turrets. Capable of carrying 8,000 lbs. of bombs, the bomb-bay was divided in two by a narrow catwalk that was universally disliked by air crews but served as the fuselages structural keel beam. B-24 Liberator - Specifications (B-24J): General Length: 67 ft. 8 in.Wingspan: 110 ft.Height: 18 ft.Wing Area: 1,048 sq. ft.Empty Weight: 36,500 lbs.Loaded Weight: 55,000 lbs.Crew: 7-10 Performance Power Plant: 4 Ãâ€" Pratt Whitney R-1830 turbo-supercharged radial engines, 1,200 hp eachCombat Radius: 2,100 milesMax Speed: 290 mphCeiling: 28,000 ft. Armament Guns: 10 Ãâ€" .50 in. M2 Browning machine gunsBombs: 2,700-8,000 lbs. depending on range An Evolving Airframe An anticipated aircraft, both the Royal and French Air Forces placed orders through the Anglo-French Purchasing Board before the prototype had even flown. The initial production batch of B-24As was completed in 1941, with many being sold directly to the Royal Air Force including those originally meant for France. Sent to Britain, where the bomber was dubbed Liberator, the RAF soon found that they were unsuitable for combat over Europe as they had insufficient defensive armament and lacked self-sealing fuel tanks. Due to the aircrafts heavy payload and long range, the British converted these aircraft for use in maritime patrols and as long range transports. Learning from these issues, Consolidated improved the design and the first major American production model was the B-24C which also included improved Pratt Whitney engines. In 1940, Consolidated again revised the aircraft and produced the B-24D. The first major variant of the Liberator, the B-24D quickly amassed orders for 2,738 aircraft. Overwhelming Consolidateds production capabilities, the company vastly expanded its San Diego, CA factory and built a new facility outside of Fort Worth, TX. At maximum production, the aircraft was built at five different plans across the United States and under license by North American (Grand Prairie, TX), Douglas (Tulsa, OK), and Ford (Willow Run, MI). The latter built a massive plant at Willow Run, MI that, at its peak (August 1944), was producing one aircraft per hour and ultimately built around half of all Liberators. Revised and improved several times throughout World War II, the final variant, the B-24M, ended production on May 31, 1945. Other Uses In addition to its use as a bomber, the B-24 airframe was also the basis for the C-87 Liberator Express cargo plane and the PB4Y Privateer maritime patrol aircraft. Though based on the B-24, the PBY4 featured a single tail fin as opposed to the distinctive twin tail arrangement. This design was later tested on the B-24N variant and engineers found that it improved handling. Though an order for 5,000 B-24Ns was placed in 1945, it was cancelled a short time later when the war ended. Due to the B-24s range and payload capabilities, it was able to perform well in the maritime role, however the C-87 proved less successful as the aircraft had difficulty landing with heavy loads. As a result, it was phased out as the C-54 Skymaster became available. Though less effective in this role, the C-87 fulfilled a vital need early in the war for transports capable of flying long distances at high altitude and saw service in many theaters including flying the Hump from India to China. All told, 18,188 B-24s of all types were built making it the most produced bomber of World War II. Operational History The Liberator first saw combat action with the RAF in 1941, however due to their unsuitability they were reassigned to RAF Coastal Command and transport duty. Improved RAF Liberator IIs, featuring self-sealing fuel tanks and powered turrets, flew the types first bombing missions in early 1942, launching from bases in the Middle East. Though Liberators continued to fly for the RAF throughout the war, they were not employed for strategic bombing over Europe. With the US entry into World War II, the B-24 began to see extensive combat service. The first US bombing mission was a failed attack on Wake Island on June 6, 1942. Six days later, a small raid from Egypt was launched against the Ploesti oil fields in Romania. As US bomber squadrons deployed, the B-24 became the standard American heavy bomber in the Pacific Theater due to its longer range, while a mix of B-17 and B-24 units were sent to Europe. Operating over Europe, the B-24 became one of the principal aircraft employed in the Allies Combined Bomber Offensive against Germany. Flying as part of the Eighth Air Force in England and the Ninth and Fifteenth Air Forces in the Mediterranean, B-24s repeated pounded targets across Axis-controlled Europe. On August 1, 1943, 177 B-24s launched a famous raid against Ploesti as part of Operation Tidal Wave. Departing from bases in Africa, the B-24s struck the oil fields from low altitude but lost 53 aircraft in the process. Battle of the Atlantic While many B-24s were hitting targets in Europe, others were playing a key role in winning the Battle of the Atlantic. Flying initially from bases in Britain and Iceland, and later the Azores and the Caribbean, VLR (Very Long Range) Liberators played a decisive role in closing the air gap in the middle of the Atlantic and defeating the German U-boat threat. Utilizing radar and Leigh lights to locate the enemy, B-24s were credited in the sinking of 93 U-boats. The aircraft also saw extensive maritime service in the Pacific where B-24s and its derivative, the PB4Y-1, wreaked havoc on Japanese shipping. During the course of the conflict, modified B-24s also service as electronic warfare platforms as well as flew clandestine missions for the Office of Strategic Services.   Crew Issues While a workhorse of the Allied bombing effort, the B-24 was not hugely popular with American air crews who preferred the more rugged B-17. Among the issues with the B-24 was its inability to sustain heavy damage and remain aloft. The wings in particular proved vulnerable to enemy fire and if hit in critical areas could give way completely. It was not uncommon to see a B-24 falling from the sky with its wings folded upwards like a butterfly. Also, the aircraft proved highly susceptible to fires as many of the fuel tanks were mounted in the upper parts of the fuselage. In addition, crews nicknamed the B-24 the Flying Coffin as it possessed only one exit which was located near the tail of the aircraft. This made it difficult to impossible for the flight crew to escape a crippled B-24. It was due to these issues and the emergence of the Boeing B-29 Superfortress in 1944, that the B-24 Liberator was retired as a bomber at the end of hostilities. The PB4Y-2 Privateer, a fully navalized derivative of the B-24, remained in service with the US Navy until 1952 and with the US Coast Guard until 1958. The aircraft was also used in aerial firefighting through 2002 when a crash led to all remaining Privateers being grounded.

Free Essays on Acceptance Letter

Medicine offers the opportunity for me to integrate different scopes of science while trying to improve human life. Medicine has intrigued me all throughout my life because it’s a never-ending mystery and every answer has questions, and vice versa. Throughout my life, I have worked towards one goal which is to become a doctor. I know that the road that I take to become a doctor is going to be very challenging, however I fee that my past has prepared me for taking on the challenge. My struggle began when I was 5 months old. My mother sent me to Liberia, Africa to live with my grandmother due to the unsuspecting birth of me. After living in war for eight years, without my mother, and living in a n impoverished country I came back to the United States. I began my education in the second grade without having any previous schooling, therefore I was demoted to the first grade at an age of eight years old. The school system labeled me as retarded and placed me in remedial clas ses. I had an early determination to prove to myself and others around me that I wasn’t retarded because I knew that it wasn’t that I was retarded, it was only because I wasn’t taught the materials. After two months of learning how to read and write, I slowly became the top of my class. The first term of my first grade year I finished by making average grades and then through persistence and the help of my mom, I excelled throughout the second term of my first grade year. Since then I knew that I started out disadvantaged amongst my peer but through hard work I could do anything. However, I knew when I was 9 years old in the second grade that I was behind. My mother and step-dad move to a different state and made me skip third grade without acquiring any knowledge. Therefore, I had to learn everything I needed to know about the third grade when I was placed in the fourth grade. I knew that I had to jump over this hurdle with me skipping the third ... Free Essays on Acceptance Letter Free Essays on Acceptance Letter Medicine offers the opportunity for me to integrate different scopes of science while trying to improve human life. Medicine has intrigued me all throughout my life because it’s a never-ending mystery and every answer has questions, and vice versa. Throughout my life, I have worked towards one goal which is to become a doctor. I know that the road that I take to become a doctor is going to be very challenging, however I fee that my past has prepared me for taking on the challenge. My struggle began when I was 5 months old. My mother sent me to Liberia, Africa to live with my grandmother due to the unsuspecting birth of me. After living in war for eight years, without my mother, and living in a n impoverished country I came back to the United States. I began my education in the second grade without having any previous schooling, therefore I was demoted to the first grade at an age of eight years old. The school system labeled me as retarded and placed me in remedial clas ses. I had an early determination to prove to myself and others around me that I wasn’t retarded because I knew that it wasn’t that I was retarded, it was only because I wasn’t taught the materials. After two months of learning how to read and write, I slowly became the top of my class. The first term of my first grade year I finished by making average grades and then through persistence and the help of my mom, I excelled throughout the second term of my first grade year. Since then I knew that I started out disadvantaged amongst my peer but through hard work I could do anything. However, I knew when I was 9 years old in the second grade that I was behind. My mother and step-dad move to a different state and made me skip third grade without acquiring any knowledge. Therefore, I had to learn everything I needed to know about the third grade when I was placed in the fourth grade. I knew that I had to jump over this hurdle with me skipping the third ...

Impact of Oil Prices on the US Economy Essay Example | Topics and Well Written Essays - 1750 words

Impact of Oil Prices on the US Economy - Essay Example Although the rise in prices of oil has been large it has not been sudden and the economies of the major economic powers have adjusted to the change. The rise in oil prices will definitely result in an across the board change in prices and thus inflation rates will continue to be high. However the likelihood of this leading to a recession in the US and other large economies of the world is remote. Over the last five years, US natural gas markets have known three major price shocks and have continued to present extremely high volatility (BNP-Paribas). In the past sudden increases in the prices of oil have been followed by sharp increase in inflation, followed by a recession. Again there has been a sharp rise in the prices of oil and it is necessary to understand what effects this can have on the economy and take corrective action where possible and required. With the experience over the last 40 years it is now possible to arrive at a clearer picture of what effects an oil price shock can have. Economists have developed conceptual frameworks to assist in understanding the effects of a sudden increase in any of the inputs to production, that is, labour and capital. These models can be extended to include the effect of oil price shock to allow analysis of the effects of such an event. The political events in the Middle-East, that led to rise in the price of oil, and their relation with the recessions in the US economy, since the first big rise in 1973, are listed in Table 1, enclosed. An examination of this information shows the political events in the Middle East that led to price rise of oil and the recessions during the same period. There does not seem to be an immediate relationship between the two, but if we factor in other information such as the timing of the interference of the central banks/ Government by adjusting interest rates and other fiscal measures to bolster the economy, the stocks of oil at the time of the rise in prices and also the size and performance of that segment of the economy which is not connected directly to the price of oil. As the development rates of the world economy reach all time highs the recession another oil price hike may cause will be difficult to control, since simultaneously interest rates are already very low and further tightening of money supply would yield very marginal results. Because of the phenomenal growth of the world economy things have become quite different from what was historically normal. Real oil prices have reached twice their average over the past two decades, Bond yields have reached the lowest ever levels, American savings are at record lows while the current-account deficit is at a record high (Woodall P, 2006). Discussion Rise in prices of gasoline hit us all

A comparison of the UK housing market with the Bulgarian housing Essay

A comparison of the UK housing market with the Bulgarian housing market - Essay Example Irrespective of the developed, developing or under developed countries, people usually have the habit of taking loans for purchasing or constructing a house. The difficulties in getting loans have prevented people across the world to think about purchasing a home at present and the real estate business people were forced to reduce their activities because of the less demand for buildings. Even though the latter half of 2009 and the beginning of 2010 have shown some sign of a revival, many people are still hesitant in spending much on the housing market. UK and Bulgaria are two European countries in which lot of construction activities were going on earlier. But the global recession has badly affected these countries and the construction sector and the housing market are going through a bad patch. UK is one of the strong and developed countries in the world whereas Bulgaria is economically poor compared to UK. Both the countries have democratic administration at present though the head of UK is the monarch at least on paper. Bulgaria was under communist regime earlier. Stevenson (2010) has reported that the economy is emerging out from recession and grew slightly in the fourth quarter of last year in UK. Moreover, industrial production also increased in last November more than expected (Stevenson, 2010). As per the article Best Bulgarian Real Estate – Your Trust Worthy Bulgarian Real Estate Partner (2008), the Bulgarian property market is the current investment hotspot and offers countless opportunities to any open-minded investor. A recently released report by the European Bank for Development and Reconstruction, property prices in Bulgaria have increased by 145% in the last three years. Moreover the value of the Bulgarian properties has risen 5 times after the country joined the European Union in 2007 (Bulgarian Real Estate

Generals Revolt on Rumsfeld Essay Example | Topics and Well Written Essays - 500 words

Generals Revolt on Rumsfeld - Essay Example This perception is based on shared perceptions and values followed by the organization and its members. The task and duty of a military leader is to create positive and supportive culture and climate based on principles, rituals and values of the military organization1. The Revolt of the Generals is a vivid example of how climate and culture caused a breach in the civil-military relations. The Revolt of the Generals is a vivid example of assault on military culture. Secretary Rumsfeld was accused in "willfully ignoring military advice and initiating the war in Iraq with a force that was too small"2. The generals state that his leadership led to low level of morale and poor climate, poor performance and personal relationships. Following Hustings (2006) culture and climate are important in the Army because connected with team spirit and commitment soldiers. It is possible to say that the Army structure is based on strong military culture supported and reinforced by soldiers and the officers3. The case of Rumsfeld portrays that a leader's behavior sets the course others follow and determine the values and other measures used to account for group actions. The responsibilities of strategic leaders include identification of a task and the quality of its fulfillment.

Photosynthesis and Cellular Respiration

Photosynthesis and Cellular Respiration Photosynthesis and aerobic respiration are both part of a cyclic process of biochemical reactions. Photosynthesis requires the products of aerobic respiration (carbon dioxide and water), while aerobic respiration requires the products of photosynthesis (glucose and oxygen). Together, these reactions are involved in how cells make and store energy. The energy transfers in both processes and in how the gas exchange between oxygen and carbon dioxide occurs and the end products that result from each process are somewhat opposite processes, thus aerobic respiration and photosynthesis are in some ways complete opposites of each other. Photosynthetic organisms such as plants use solar energy to reduce carbon dioxide into carbohydrates. During respiration glucose is oxidised back to carbon dioxide, in the process, releasing energy that is captured in the bonds of ATP. Although these two energy producing processes differ in their uses and also their goals, they do have several similarities. Photosynthesis is a chemical process that takes place in the presence of sunlight, wherein plants manufacture their food and build stores of energy. This phenomenon occurs in chlorophyll containing plant cells. Chlorophyll is a pigment found in plant leaves that gives the plant its green colour. Chlorophyll absorbs the light energy and utilises it to produce carbohydrates from carbon dioxide and water. These carbohydrates produced are used by the plants as a source of immediate energy for growth, reproduction, and absorption of nutrients. The chemical reaction produces oxygen which is released into the atmosphere. Photosynthesis can be summed up by the following equation 6CO2 + 6H20 + Sunlight à ¯Ã†â€™Ã‚  C6H1206 + 6O2, (fig1 below illustrates the process of photosynthesis) Occurring in the chloroplast light reaction converts solar energy to chemical energy of ATP and NADPH.The light reactions use the solar power of photons absorbed by Photosystem I and II. These are light gathering antennas containing the chlorophyll primarily responsible for absorbing the light. Electrons are also carried from Photosystem I and II via NADPH to the Calvin cycle. The Calvin cycle uses ATP NADPH to convert CO2 to sugar.CO2 enters the cycle leaves as sugar. The sugar product of the Calvin cycle is not glucose but a 3 carbon sugar called 3-Phosphoglycerate. This 3- Phosphoglycerate with the addition of another phosphate group from ATP forms glyceraldehyde-3-phosphate .In order for one of these G3P molecules to be synthesised the cycle must take place 3 times, fixing 3 molecules of CO2.There are 3 phases of the Calvin cycle, the carbon fixation phase, the carbon reduction phase and the regeneration phase. Cellular respiration is the process of oxidising food molecules or breaking down chemical bonds of glucose into carbon dioxide and water. The energy released in the process is trapped in the form of ATP and used by different energy consuming activities of the cell. It is a set of metabolic reactions that unlike photosynthesis which occurs in the chloroplast, cellular respiration occurs in the mitochondria. The complete breakdown of glucose into carbon dioxide and water involves two major steps: glycolysis and aerobic respiration. Glycolysis is the anaerobic catabolism of glucose that occurs in all the cells and produces two molecules of ATP. Aerobic respiration is the process in which the pyruvate molecules produced by glycolysis undergoes further breakdown in the presence of oxygen and generates thirty four molecules of ATP. This reaction can be described as follows: C6H1206 + 602 à ¯Ã†â€™Ã‚  6CO2 + 6H2O + Energy (38 ATP)(fig2 below illustrates cellular respiration) Cellular respiration beginning here with glycolysis catabolises glucose into 2 molecules of pyruvate. The net yield from glycolysis is 2 ATP 2 NADH per glucose. Electrons are carried from here to the electron transport chain via NADH. Pyruvate enters the mitochondrion where it gets modified to Acetyl COA. This then enters the Krebs cycle. The Krebs cycle completes the oxidation of the organic fuel to CO2.Electrons produced here are carried via NADH FADH2 to the electron transport chain oxidative phosphorylation. In the Krebs cycle a further 2 ATP is produced. Once there has been a sufficient energy shuttle of NADH from glycolysis, a maximum yield of 34 ATP is produced by oxidative phosphorylation. This then gives a maximum of 38 ATP produced. Photosynthesis is a reduction-oxidation reaction, just like respiration. In respiration energy is released from sugars when electrons associated with hydrogen are transported to oxygen (the electron acceptor), and water is formed as a by-product.   The mitochondria use the energy released in this oxidation in order to synthesize ATP.  In photosynthesis, the electron flow is reversed, the water is split (not formed), and the electrons are transferred from the water to CO2 and in the process the energy is used to reduce the CO2 into sugar. In respiration the energy yield is 686 kcal per mole of glucose oxidized to CO2, while photosynthesis requires 686 kcal of energy to boost the electrons from the water to their high-energy perches in the reduced sugar light provides this energy. Outlined above are the main differences between the two processes. However, photosynthesis and cellular respiration are two processes that both involve electron transport chains and they both affect conc entrations of carbon dioxide and oxygen in the atmosphere. Both photosynthesis and cellular respiration provide energy to the organisms cells. It is interesting to note the structural similarities between Chlorophyll, that plays an important role in photosynthesis and Haemoglobin that is involved in cellular respiration. Both structures are practically identical except for the fact that haemoglobin has a central Iron atom and chlorophyll possesses a central Magnesium atom. Haemoglobin is a protein that carries oxygen in the blood. Where chlorophyll is known for its green pigment, haemoglobin is known for its deep red pigment. (Fig3 illustrates structural  Similarities). Both photosynthesis and respiration are also similar in that they both undergo chemiosmosis.Chloroplasts and mitochondria generate ATP by this same basic mechanism. In both kinds of organelles ,electron transport chains pump protons (H+)across a membrane from a region of low H+ concentration to an area of high H+ concentration. The protons then diffuse back across the membrane through ATP syntheses, driving the synthesis of ATP. To conclude from this, photosynthesis and cellular respiration are the most vital biochemical pathways to life. They both include cycles, stages and many enzymes to function. Although their similarities can be easily recognised, it is their differences that make them stand apart as opposite processes. Photosynthesis requiring light in order to produce its end product, carbohydrate, and cellular respiration requiring carbohydrate in order to produce its end product energy.

Jacob Lawrence :: essays research papers

Jacob Lawrence has painted figurative and narrative pictures of the black community and black history for more than 60 years in a consistent modernist style, using expressive, strong design and flat areas of color. Jacob Lawrence was a great artist. During Harlem Renaissance, he helped establish African American artists. He gave lectures at Washington University, and he enjoyed working with students of all ages. Jacob Lawrence was born in Atlantic City on September 7, 1917. His parents Jacob Armstead Lawrence and Rose Lee were part of the Great Migration of Black Americans (1916-1930). One million people left the rural South for the urban North during this period. He moved with his family for Easton, Pennsylvania. After his parents separated, he moved with his mother to Philadelphia. In 1927, his mother moved to New York and placed Lawrence and his siblings in foster homes. In 1930, Lawrence, age 13, and his brother and sister moved to Harlem to live with his mother. During Lawrence’s childhood, his family was forced to relocate many times as his parents looked for work. Steady jobs were hard to find, especially for African Americans. Racial prejudice prevented them from pursuing certain jobs or professions. Harlem was a crowded, teeming place, and the public school Lawrence attended was considered among the roughest in the area. But Harlem in the 1930s was also the center of what became known as the Harlem Renaissance. To keep her son out of trouble Rose Lawrence enrolled him in an after-school arts and crafts program at a local community center. It was taught by a young African American artist named Charles Alston. Alston liked the serious, quiet Lawrence and made sure he had lots of materials for his efforts. He found that drawing geometric designs in bright colors satisfied him greatly. He soon moved on to elaborate patterns and developed his own method of painting in which particular shapes were rendered in corresponding colors, one at a time. Lawrence continued in this mode through much of his career. The notable consistency of color is apparent in the artist’s later series of story panels. Lawrence got many of his ideas from the books and magazines he found at the center where the classes were held. Lawrence had Alston show him how to mix paper-mache, and he went on to create many colorful, life-size masks. He also used cardboard boxes to fashion three-sided scenes, depicting locales in Harlem- stores, barbershops, houses and newsstands.